While the above title may appear fanciful or a bit overblown at first glance, the publishing history of Jack London's short stories, novels, and essays in Poland (1909-1993) supports the conclusion that Poland's favorite American writer of all time rose to astounding heights with the public, only to crash and burn -- much like Icarus -- after the fall of communism in late 1989. This essay will chart that publishing history, examine the reasons for London's amazing popularity and sudden decline with the public, and analyze the underlying forces in his chilly critical reception in the Polish academy.
First the facts, then the analysis and interpretation. London's first work published in Polish was Przygody psa w Klondyke in 1909, which the reader no doubt instantly recognizes as "The Adventures of a Dog in the Klondike," also known as The Call of the Wild. This work remains the all-time favorite with Poles: through 1992, approxi-mately 1,525,428 copies in 30 editions have seen the light of publication. Since many copies of London's more important works have been purchased by public libraries, millions of Poles through the years have read him. In fact, it's nigh on impossible to find a Pole over fourteen years who hasn't read either The Call of the Wild or White Fang or both.
The story collection White Silence appeared in 1910 and the novel Adventure in 1911. Three other tales saw publication in newspapers and weekly or monthly magazines, between 1913 and 1919. Two plays were also produced. This was not an auspicious start -- for the writer who, through 1992, would eventually come in second place behind Hans Christian Andersen as the most published foreign writer in Poland in this century.
London's "Nonage": 1909-1919
# titles # eds. total # copies aver # per ed. Books 6 6 8,000 2,664 Periodics 3 3 5,500 1,883 Drama 2 0 N/A N/A TOTALS 11 9 13,500 2,250 The decade following World War One ushered in London's "Golden Age" in Poland. Stanisawa Kuszelewska purchased the rights to London's works from Charmian Kittridge London (although no record exists of her paying the London estate a penny in royalties).1 A tireless worker, Kuszelewska translated sixty-seven tales and nine novels into Polish.
"The Golden Age": 1920-1929
# eds. # new tales added # book titles total # copies aver # per ed. Books 92 137 44 650,425 7,070 Periodics 40 21 N/A 325,500 8,138 TOTALS 132 158 44 975,925 7,393 The 1920's saw sales of 44 different book titles (92 editions). The press runs between the World Wars were often small [3-10,000 copies], but those few fortunate readers were treated to 158 new tales. Unfortunately, many stories were published once and only once during this decade of astounding riches. Thus, many contem-porary readers have never had access to those "least popular tales" listed in Table Three.
The 1930's and the Great Depression caused considerable shrinkage in publication numbers for almost all writers, domestic and foreign, in Poland. London faired reasonably well.
"The Silver Age": 1930-1939
# eds. # new tales added # book titles total # copies aver # per ed. Books 34 9 24 178,650 4,963 Periodics 8 1 N/A 76,000 9,500 TOTALS 42 10 24 250,650 5,968 What catches the eye is the rapid decline in new stories being translated. Of course, with over almost 60 percent of London's nearly 200 short stories already translated by 1929, we must expect fewer and fewer new titles with each passing decade. Ognisko, a newspaper based in Paris, published eight of the new nine tales to see publication during the 1930's; in addition, Ognisko issued Adventure both in book form and as a newspaper serial. However, we can hypothize that many copies were sent to Poland since two public libraries, one research library, and the national archives still have copies sixty years later. In 1936 Ksi'garnia Ludowa of Chicago published Marcin Eden.
Under Nazi German occupation (late 1939-late 1944) Polish presses printed very few foreign authors other than Germans (e.g., Goethe, Schiller, May, etc.). London wasn't among that few. After the presses began rolling again in 1945, London entered his "Bronze Age," the late '40s and '50s. In 1946 Wilk morski / The Sea Wolf, and in 1947 four novelles in book form as well as two full-length novels were printed by Polski Dom Wydawnicy in Rome.2 The Polish communist government began promoting the publication of London's works in the late 1940's. The Selected Works came out in 1957 in ten volumes of 30,250 copies per volume. Total book sales of 2,111,000 in those fifteen years show his increasing popularity. However, we see fewer new titles added to the Polish canon (only 21 in the Bronze Age versus 158 during the Golden and Silver) and fewer editions. The increasing size of print runs account for his huge numbers.
"The Bronze Age": 1940-1959
Decade # eds.
Books# new tales added # book titles total # copies aver # per ed. 1940's 37 6 27 492,640 13,315 1950's 46 10 26 1,595,771 34,691 Subtotals 83 16 53 2,088,546 Decade # eds. Periodics # new tales added # book titles total # copies aver # per ed. 1940's 26 2 N/A 2,330,100 89,619 1950's 50 3 N/A 8,802,197 176,044 Subtotals 76 5 N/A 11,132,297 TOTALS 159 21 13,220,843 These fifteen years constitute London's "Bronze Age." The Polish canon was essentially cast in bronze, with only two new stories added after 1957. The size of press runs continued to soar, chalking up very impressive numbers indeed. The publication by Iskry of The Selected Works in 1957 was acompanied by a furious hype through the publication in newspapers, Sunday supplements, and magazines of many of the tales in new translations made especially for the Iskry edition. To be precise, sixty-nine percent of those tales published in periodics during the 1950's were the translations used for The Selected Works. Once the twelve-volume edition was sold out by late 1958, only two short stories saw periodic publication in the next eleven years.
London's "Iron Age" began in the early 1960's. His appeal finally peaked in the early 1980's and began to fade slightly. The collapse of the communist govern-ment in 1989 precipitated the Fall of JL in Poland.
"The Iron Age": 1960-89
Decade # eds.
Books# new tales added # book titles total # copies aver # per ed. 1960's 21 1 13 1,376,860 65,565 1970's 22 0 11 1,685,710 77,623 1980's 26 0 19 1,804,985 69,422 Subtotals 69 1 43 4,867,555 70,544 Decade # eds. Periodics # new tales added # book titles total # copies aver # per ed. 1960's 2 0 N/A 172,000 86,000 1970's 14 1 N/A 0 0 1980's 0 0 N/A 0 0 Subtotals 16 1 N/A 2,698,820 TOTALS 75 2 7,566,375 These thirty years saw only two titles added to the canon. Book and periodic editors chose to publish reprint after reprint of the old favorites. The press runs were large, about 70,000 each (over twice the national average for foreign writers) until the fall of commun-ism.3 The major publishing houses, heavily subsided by the government, were able to keep out most private houses, but after subsides ceased and printing costs rose significantly, the size of print runs declined remarkably. For example, The Selected Works, orginally published in ten volumes of 30,250 copies each by Iskry in 1957, were re-issued in nine volumes of a miniscule 5,000 copies per volume by TEKOP in 1991. Three projected volumes of the TEKOP edition have never come out for lack of demand.
During the Bronze and Iron Ages, the editors kept churning out collections of Nowele / Tales with the same 50-60 stories. Publishers used what Poles call "sprytny metody" or clever marketing practices which often border on the unethical. Three examples will suffice: first, giving different Polish titles to the same tale by the same translator; second, often changing titles with new translations, even if the first title is accurate; and third, taking the same 30-40 tales and renaming the new collection of stories with a different title. Thus, the same collection of thirty identical tales could, theoretically, be published under thirty different titles. When an editor at Iskry was confronted with this unethical practice, he merely shrugged and said, "It sells books. Changing the Polish title on the same collection keeps the people buying."
Irving Stone's JL: Sailor on Horseback, first published in late 1959, has been the chief source of information regarding London during the "Iron Age." While Stone treats London's socialism in a profunctory manner, most of the reviewers spent considerably more time on this aspect; the fact that about two-thirds of these reviews appeared in communist party newspapers helped solidify in the public's mind the strong connection between JL's economic politics and his popularity within the communist party. When the party fell from power, London's appeal collapsed as well. Incidently, only one Polish critic knew of Russ Kingman's work on London's life. Until Kingman's biography is translated and published in Poland, Stone's largely discredited work will prevail; however, given the catastrophic decline in JL's appeal since 1989, this writer seriously doubts that any publisher will venture a new JL biography in the next ten years.
"The Age of Rust" is now upon London in Poland as new small (micro) presses emerge, publishing hundreds of new authors and titles. Established presses are made very nervous by a volatile free marketplace. Iskry, London's main publisher from 1954 through 1991, decreased the size of a London print run from 100,000 in 1988 to a mere 10,000 in 1991, just within three years.
"The Age of Rust": 1990-1993
# eds. # new titles total # copies aver # per ed. Books 15 0 195,000 13,00 Periodics 0 0 0 0 The 1990's have been cruel to London: two editions in 1990, eleven in 1991 (nine from the reissue of The Selected Works), two in 1992, and none in 1993, with none planned for 1994. The average press run dropped from 69,500 books to 13,000 in two short years as market forces took hold. The classics are no longer hot stuff; the rages of 1990 and 1991 were adventure, science fiction and horror novels for the guys: Alistair Maclean soared to first place in sales while London sank to 28th among foreign writers (See Table Two). The rage of 1992 was the Harlequin romance lines for the girls: that is, the Romance, the Super Romance, the Summer Sizzler, the Temptation, the Desire, and the plain Harlequin lines are now available in bookstores and kiosks and with street vendors everywhere. Two other 'romance' publishers have recently tapped into this fad. Alistair Maclean is now so popular that a Polish publisher slapped Maclean's name on a "western" written by Krystyn Wand (the pseudonym of Tadeusz Kostecki) and published in 1939 and 1947 in very small press runs. This clumsy plagiarism was exposed in Skanda (Scandal) in July of 1992; although the editor was publicly humiliated, no legal action was ever taken.4
One professor of English at Warsaw University said it best: "I haven't been so excited in decades by a trip to the bookshop, with hundred of fresh titles and new authors. I want to buy everything!" Because Jack London has been such a staple of the Polish reading diet for seven decades, the market for his works has been staturated for the time being. Many homes have a London or two on the bookself, and the public libraries are well stocked -- with a three-to-five-year supply. Thus consumers with money for books naturally will buy the fresh and unknown rather than the tried and stale. It seem certain that London's fortunes will sink lower before rising out of the ashes. It may take another six to ten years before Poles return to the classics like White Fang, Martin Eden, and The Call of the Wild.
Besides standard print media, Londons works have been made available in a six other media:
Media other than Standard Print
Decade Film TV Play Radio Play Audio Cassette Drama* Braille TOTAL 1950's 1 0 0 0 1 2 4 1960's 0 5 3 0 0 0 8 1970's 0 3 13 1 1 0 17 1980's 0 0 3 5 0 4 12 1990's 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 TOTALS 1 8 19 7 2* 6 42 *Two plays were produced (Theft in 1913 and Gold in 1974) and two stories had dramatic adaptations (The House of Pride in 1917 and To Kill A Man in 1955).
As the above table reveals, all other media closely mirrors JL's fate among the print publishers after 1989. A check of the braille and audio cassette publishers indicates "no plans in the near future" to bring out new JL works. Of course, the current market-forces are skewed against London since it much cheaper to pirate cassettes from the West and sell them for $2 each than to pay professional actors and produce a dramatic reading (a'la radio play) in an expensive studio.
A glance at Table Two reveals other pertinent facts. Please note the overwhelming popularity of fairy tales for children (Hans Christian Andersen, 1st place; the brothers Grimm, 8th) during the past 47 years. Adventure stories for boys and girls (Jack London, 2nd; Jules Verne, 3rd; Lucy Montgomery, 4th; A. A. Milne, 9th; Karl May, 10th; Hugh Lofting, 11th) demonstrate a pecularity of the Polish market: the most popular foreign writers are usually classified as creators of "literature for children and youth" rather than "belletristic literature." London's The Call of the Wild and White Fang are listed as books for youth whereas Martin Eden is belles-lettres or "fine literature."
While this classification may not seem all that strange, it does point up the salient fact that Poles turn to faraway places with strange sounding names or to different climes and times for escapist fiction for children (ages 4-10), boys and girls (ages 11-100). When they, as adults, want to gain insight into their own tortured living conditions under the infamous 123-year partitions from the late 18th to early 20th centuries, the incredible destruction and suffering during the two World Wars, the dreary grimness of life under commun-ism, they look to Polish writers of 'grim reality' almost without exception. When they want to escape the sordid reality surrounding them, they usually turn to foreign writers. Their own most popular 'escapist' writers focus on faraway places (like Australia, Asia, and Africa) or distant times and climes (like the American Wild West and ancient Rome and Egypt).
London, with powerful tales of dynamic heroes often overcoming phenomenal odds in raw nature, deeply appealed to a people held captive for 123 years during the Partitions and 42 years under communism. Although the tales of his Northland saga make up "little more than one third of his short fiction,"5 London wrote numerous other stories which have found great appeal in Poland: see Table Three.
The obvious question comes up: did London owe his astounding popularity from 1948 to 1989 to his socialist themes in some works, or to the splendor and vitality of his adventure tales? A glance at Table Three shows that only three of his most 34 popular tales (+500,000 copies) were overtly socialist. Table Four also indicates a poor showing for socialism between the World Wars. Table Five gives an overview of London's tales by type: frontier or goldrush tales, sea stories, socialistic tales, and all others. Three interesting points leap off the page: first, socialist tales comprised only 7.1% of all stories published during the communist era in Poland; second, only 6.2% by numbers of copies sold had a socialist theme; and finally, they ranked third overall by press run size, barely edging out sea stories. It would appear that the editors of the communist presses were not pushing London very hard as a socialist writer, as "a champion of the proletariat."
London's socialism, however, was mentioned in almost book review from 1947 to 1989. The public was constantly reminded that London was (1) a member of the American Socialist Party, (2) a champion of the downtrodden worker, and (3) a favorite with Lenin. Thus the Polish public associated JL with the socialist cause. And when communism bit the dust in Poland, London wasn't far behind; Twain, Heminway and Fitzgerald -- other American classics -- have not shared London's eclipse.
A survey of 212 Poles who lived in and around Warsaw was conducted during the summer of 1992. (See Survey One for the results.) This survey is a down and dirty piece of work, scarcely scientific in any sense of the word; however, it does agree in the main with other evidence that the Polish people -- in general -- like the benefits of socialism (free health plan, free education, no unemployment, etc.). However, they disliked commun-ism even during the rebuilding years (1945-1965) and came to hate and distrust communism so intensely they tried to overthrow it in 1981 under SolidarnoÊç [a.k.a. Solidarity]. Thus Poles were careful to discriminate between economic socialism and governmental commun-ism; that is, they could see that certain aspects of socialism per se could and did work in western democracies; what didn't work was an oppressive govern-ment supported by a strong secret police and loyal miltiary, a government which wasn't accountable to the voters. To read London for his socialist themes was not and never has been an endorsement of communism. Moreover, Poles reveled in his strong individualism, courage of the heroes, and love of nature. As a rule of thumb, the older the person, the more likely she or he will like the socialistic themes in Jack's work. Very few respondents under 36 years of age found the socialistic ideas their favorite aspect of Jack's tales. Of course, these answers regarding socialism are now skewed by the enormous unpopularity of the collapsed communist government and by their positive feelings towards democracy. Nonetheless, the Polish people are becoming increasingly frustrated by and impatient with free-market capitalism because their standard of living has dropped about 35% in the last three years, living conditions aren't improving, unemployment stands at 12%, and doom and gloom and the blue funk are prevasive. The same survey administered in 1996 would, most probably, generate considerably different results.
The Poles' extensive acquaintance with Jack London came about through three avenues: newspapers and magazines, the bookstores, and schools. The Ministry of Education sets the national curriculum and the obliga-tory reading list. During the 6th grade pupils are introduced to John Dos Passos; in the 7th grade, students were required to read and report on London's White Fang or The Call of the Wild and during the 8th grade, Martin Eden. The vocational school track substitutes "Love of Life" for Martin Eden. Of course, most who read one of the Northland sagas read the other. But all that's changing. The curriculum may be revised in the near future, and it's difficult to guesstimate how London will fare on the required reading list. The obligatory list obviously enhanced the sales of The Call, White Fang, and Martin Eden. Public libraries throughout Poland purchased perhaps half the press runs of these works for nearly forty years. When the communist government fell, the library budgets were brutally axed -- by 80-90% in many cases; however, most public libraries have a three-to-five-year stock of the works on the obligatory list, so the likelihood of new print runs before 1997 is remote. Without libraries purchasing much in the 1990's, the demand for new London editions indeed remains marginal.
London has never fared well with Polish academics. A critical controversy raged between 1923 and 1925 regarding London's literary merit -- or the lack thereof. The whole debate is nicely summed up by Teresa Kieniewicz:
Popular already before World War I, Jack London's books became bestsellers in the 1920's, appearing in more editions and reprints than any other author's novels or short stories. The wide-spread interest in his writing taken by the reading public pressed upon critics and reviewers the necessity to judge and evaluate. The controversy continued in Poland for more than two years, between 1922 and 1925, engaging numerous literary periodicals -- conservative, liberal as well as those with socialist and communist affiliations.
The main line of attack was directed against the roughness and violence of his stories praising physical strength and fitness as the only guarantee of man's survival in his struggle against cruel and hostile nature. At the same time the reviewers for Czas, Wiadomosci Literacki and other 'respectable' periodicals pointed out numerous weaknesses and failures in style, structure and psychology of London's stories. These objections could be neither denied nor even disregarded. Yet London admirers and enthusiasts balanced his shortcomings with positive qualities, both moral and educational. By praising he preaches vitality, strength, courage, joy of and lust for life -- that is, the virtues too often missing in Polish literary heritage.
Two leftist periodicals Nowa Kultura and Kultura Robotnicza concentrated upon London's political convictions and ideology reflected in his writings. The portrait of the writer they presented was definitely one sided, drawn in such a way as to make it fit the standard pattern of a revolutionary.
The controversy over Jack London's prose was in fact not a literary but a political one in which ideological arguments greatly overshadowed artistic considerations. Obviously enough, no agreement was reached, yet as the social and political issues lost their immediacy the dispute calmed down. After 1925 London's popularity decreased while more serious critics regarded him as one writing for the young public only.5
While Kieniewicz's summary nicely captures the essence of the controversy, two statements need correcting: first, London was neither popular nor well known before World War I; second, London was more popular after the controvery than during it.
Year # editions # copies aver # per ed. 1922-25 44 297,825 6,769 1926-29 45 322,600 7,169 True, London's numbers took a diving plunge during the world-wide Great Depression -- just like all writers. The legacy, however, of this controversy still clings to London like sticky pitch: all of his Northland sagas are labelled as "literature for children and youth" whereas Martin Eden and other "mature" fiction is catalogued and sold as "fine" or belletristic literature. When a few hardy critics even write about London's stories, they carefully avoid the "kiddy lit" and focus exclusively on London's belles-lettres: Adventure, Burning Daylight, John Barleycorn, The Kempton-Wace Letters, The Little Lady of the Big House, Martin Eden, The People of the Abyss, The Road, The Sea Wolf, and The Valley of the Moon. When MA students are permitted to write their theses on JL, they focus on his socialism, utopia, the autobiographical elements in Martin Eden, and the nature of his human heroes and heroines, not the accuracy of his canine psychology.
In the post-World War II era Jack has found very limited critical favor. One useful measure of academic interest is the number of master's theses and doctoral dissertations written from 1950 through 1992 versus the number of books bought by the Polish public. London ranks first in sales among all Americans, yet 43rd in the number of theses written (tying at 43rd with Vladomir Nabokov, Thornton Wilder, and Katherine Anne Porter). Another way to guage the level of favor in scholars' eyes is to divide the book sales by the number of theses. We find that Twain is 6.4 times more worthy of scholarly interest, Hemingway 7.3 times, Faulkner 10.6, Fitzgerald 30.6, and Steinbeck 33.4. London neatly rests between James Fenimore Cooper and Raymond Chandler in academic esteem and slightly ahead of James Oliver Curwood in academic appeal. The above figures suggest that London's comparatively low status in Polish academic eyes closely parallels his equally low status in the American academy until quite recently. Polish professors clearly follow American scholarly trends, steering their students away from popular pulp literature to belles-lettres.
There appears to be three causes for London's low status in the Polish academy. The 1922-25 controversy irrevocably and unfairly fixed the label of "literature for children and youth" on his most popular works. For the past fifty years Polish professors have followed the American academic trends in criticism: "the monkey see, monkey do" syndrome. This syndrome was ascerbated by the fact that precious few humanities professors were members of the communist party, and JL was strongly identified in the popular press as a great supporter of the common man and socialist causes. Moreover, JL was published by major houses heavily subsidized by the communist party; almost seventy percent of JL's tales in the periodical press in the 1950's appeared in party organs: e.g, The Worker's Voice. Was it any wonder, then, that JL found so little favor with Polish academics? Guilt by (socialistic) association is never pretty but is quite understandable in London's case. Beyond four editions of Irving Stone's Sailor on Horseback and introductions by editors in about a dozen London novels, precious little criticism has been published. We cannot expect the scales of Polish academic favor to tip toward him in the foreseeable future, primarily because he's still seen -- in the main-- as a writer of "kiddy lit," pulp fiction, and socialistic rubbish. Without denigrating Polish academics (some are very good friends), this writers thanks the public for their wisdom for buying Jack.
A close perusal of the Index reveals several obstacles this researcher faced in compiling the JL biobliography. First, many stories were translated under different titles -- some literal and accurate, some poetic and fanciful, and a few downright misleading: for example, Ponàce Êwiato literally means burning daylight; Zoty dzie[florin] means golden day, and Elam Harnish obviosly refers to the hero of Burning Daylight. "To Kill a Man" has five different Polish titles, and "The Race for Number Three" was actually labelled as "The Race for Number One" before the identical translation was correctly named by Iskry, which should have known better. The phony "Race for Number One" made readers thinks there was another JL story on the same theme. As mentioned above, Iskry consistently reissued the same collections of tales under a variety of names in order to make readers think they were getting a fresh batch of JL gems, only to find that they had seen those pearls before.
The second problem revolves around book, news-paper, and magazine editors' desire to avoid paying royalties. There is no record of a single Polish publisher paying the Jack London estate one zoty (or red penny). To avoid paying Polish translators their fees, publishers printed "anonymously" translated tales even when the translator (e.g., Stanisawa Kuszelewska) was alive and well and living less than ten miles from the press. Therefore, it was necessary to match every "anon." translated tale against known translations in order to locate the actual translator [placed in brackets in the Bibliography].
Third, perhaps forty percent of all publishers stopped sending two free copies of each book to the national archives as required by law, thus necessitating an intensive search of bookstores, kiosks, and sidewalk venders to stumble across eleven (out of fifteen) editions published in the 1990's. Moreover, two-thirds of all editions no longer provide the number of copies in the press run because of new government inventory taxes imposed in 1990. If the government didn't know the press run size, it couldn't assess taxes. In addition, the competition didn't know how many copies were published. At parties attended by editors since 1990, a press run of 15,000 actual copies suddenly balloons to 40,000 or more; this ploy often kept other publishers from issuing a competing edition.6 Without this infor-mation available in the book itself, this researcher was forced to slog to different publishing houses and write letters to others, begging for specific data. Some editors wouldn't discuss the press run size until convinced they were talking to an American professor, not an undercover tax agent or competitor. Further, they needed firm assurances that the data wouldn't see print until 1994 or 1995, well beyond the statute of limitations on tax fraud or delinquent taxes.
Fourth, editors cashed in on London's phenomenal popularity by pawning off four stories as his work: a 17th-century Spanish pirate adventure (a comic book); a gold rush to the Brazilian jungle; an auction story at Hi-hi-ho-ho Atoll a la "The Pearls of Parlay"; and a Canadian gold rush tale a la "All Gold Canyon." Of course, London isn't the only foreign writer to be ripped off; the Alistair Maclean episode was mentioned above. Pirating music cassettes and film videos is big business in Poland and will continue to be so until the Parliament passes a new copyright law in 1994, protecting foreign artistic productions.
NOTES
1 I. Milo Shepard catalogued the entire Jack London library and personal papers. He found not one royalty payment from Poland -- ever! Personal telephone call. March 1993.
2 Aleksandra Kralkowska (reference librarian). Accademia Polacca delle Scienze, Rome. Personal letter. March 1994.
3 Ruch wydawniczy w lichbach XXXVII: 1991 / Polish Publishing in Numbers. Warsaw: Biblioteka Naradowa -- Institut Bibliograficz-ny, 1992.
4 Jan Longin Oko[florin]. Personal letter, Lublin. July 1993. Oko[florin] is a noted historian. journalist. and author of fourteen historical novels (eight on Poland and six on the North American frontier).
5 Teresa Kieniewicz, "Spór o Jacka Londona / Controversy over Jack London," Kwartalnik Neograficzny XXI: 2 (1974): 219-225.
6 El[hungarumlaut]bieta Zelonka, foreign fiction editor for Iskry, the main publisher of London's works, 1953-1989. Personal interview, June 1990, Warsaw.
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